Scottish Hilltracks

I'll start by saying how amazing the Highlands of Scotland are. They are wild and beautiful and this is why I keep going back there. However, all is not well and it's connected with land ownership.

According to a report produced by the Economic and Social Research Council, 27% of the privately owned land in Scotland is Sporting Estates. This constitutes 43% of the Highlands and Islands. As you can see from this image taken from the report, of the 218 Estates, 66% are owned by absentee landlords.

For years now, unsightly roads have been appearing all over the Highlands. Landowners claim that these are for agricultural purposes and no doubt they sometimes are, but often this is just a way to avoid the need to get planning permission. To quote from a report produced by the LINK Hill Tracks Campaign:

"The Campaign has reviewed location plans for many tracks claimed to be for agricultural use which, when cross-referenced to OS maps and aerial photos, clearly show the presence of grouse butts, thereby raising concerns as to their likely primary use. Claims of agricultural use can also be made when the more likely purpose is deer stalking, potentially illustrated by the following statement which was noted in sales particulars for the Ledgowan estate near Achnasheen in Wester Ross. 'Accessibility to the majority of the hill ground has been transformed by the construction of a network of hill roads. This significantly expands the scope of the stalking to enable those of all levels of physical fitness ...'"

The report includes many pictures, including one of mine (below) showing just how unsightly these tracks are and many are constructed so badly that they are damaging the ecosystems by causing water to run off the land faster causing even further damage as in Glen Falloch.

Sign by track at Drumochter urging walkers to help conserve the countryside, photo taken June 2017

Another reason for constructing a hill track is to allow for the construction of run-of-river hydro schemes. In 2010 a new feed-in tariff was introduced. This meant that you would be paid to generate your own electricity. At the time you could get a better return on your capital by investing it in a small hydro scheme than you could by putting it in the bank. Once the work is done there is a dam up in the hills and a buried pipe that leads down to a small building with a turbine in it.

In order to build the dam you need a track to get the machinery up to it and to maintain it and the pipeline. The feed-in tariff was scrapped in April 2019 but produced what the BBC described as a 'gold rush' for hydro power. If you joined before it closed your payment was index-linked for 20 years!

Considering the environmental damage, do these mini hydro-schemes make sense. Clearly they make business sense for the landowner but do they make sense for the rest of us? The run of the river schemes that I am talking about generate less than 5 MW of electricity. You can search the Renewable Energy Foundation Database to see how much power all of the Scottish Commercial Hydro Schemes smaller than 5 MW collectively produce. The result is about 154 MW.

The average UK home uses about 3.5 KW. So this powers about 44,000 homes (1.8% of the homes in Scotland). Most hydro hardware manufacturers quote design lives of 25 years - not that long. Wouldn't we be better off using tidal power?

"The crown estate and Scottish government are behind a £4 bn project to build a number of tidal power sites around the Orkney islands and the Pentland Firth, expected to generate the same amount of power as a nuclear power station. That's 1.2GW of green energy - enough to power up to 750,000 homes.

Some estimates have suggested that a combination of tidal and wave power from the area could produce up to 60GW of power. That would represent 10 times Scotland's annual electricity usage. Other studies suggest one-third of the UK's total electricity needs could be met by tidal power alone."

Have these landowners really been converted to using their land for green electricity? If you do use your land for deerstalking or grouse shooting, that subsidised track is very handy!

There is a campaign against these hilltracks. You can read more about it here. Disappointingly, in June 2019, MSPs voted against including new hilltrack legislation in the Planning Bill. It won the support of Green, Labour and Liberal Democrat colleagues, but SNP and Conservative MSPs joined forces to vote against the changes.

You can help by taking photos of new tracks or tracks of concern and sending them to hilltracks@scotlink.org or sharing the photos on social media using #HillTracks. Also, if you live in Scotland, you can write or speak to your elected representatives in the Scottish Parliament and/or your local authority.

If you would like to read more about this, read this article by Helen Todd of Ramblers Scotland. I'll quote some of it below:

"Why do we need stronger laws?

Environmental damage: We're seeing vehicles tracks that cause permanent scarring to landscapes, including SSSIs, rare habitats and important peatland environments.

Industrialising the countryside: Tracks are creeping further and further into Scotland's wilder areas, industrialising special environments and impacting on people's outdoor experience. This includes vehicle tracks bulldozed near the summits of popular Munros.

Bad build quality: Due to the lack of oversight, construction standards are often poor. This results in 'rubble' tracks that wash away during heavy rain, deep banks that are too step to re-vegetate and inappropriate materials including visible plastic piping.

Democratic deficit: Perhaps the biggest issues is fairness. These tracks symbolise the abuse of privilege by many landowners. While ordinary people need to apply for planning permission to build modest extensions to their houses, tracks are being bulldozed up mountainsides causing permanent scars with no public oversight.

Tracks can have several uses, and we completely acknowledge that some can be useful for mountain-biking and walking – although sadly many have been built over the top of existing narrow, low-impact trails, including historical routes.
However, the current system offers no opportunity for the public to weigh up the pros and cons of potential new tracks."

My Carbon Footprint

Considering that I have taken six European return flights this year I was wondering about my Carbon Footprint.

There are various websites that calculate this for you. I chose co2.myclimate.org as the site is easy to use and they don't seem to have any obvious axe to grind. They also explain how they have worked things out.

Adding up the six flights, I have generated about 4.4 tonnes of Carbon Dioxide.

What percentage of my overall carbon footprint is this?

• Driving the car for a year is about 4 t. 
• Living where I do and following my lifestyle is about 8.1 t and
• Breathing for a year is about 0.3 t.

This means that my overall carbon footprint this year will be about 16.7 tonnes of which 26% is flights.

According to myclimate.org, if I:

• Always travelled by public transport, cycled or walked (saving - 1.8 t)
• Never flew (saving - 4.4 t)
• Only eat vegetarian food (saving - 1.2 t)
• Very rarely bought new products, clothes or decorative items (saving - 0.2 t)
• Moved to an energy efficient building (saving - 1.6 t)
• Only took quick showers (already doing it)
• Wore a pullover in winter when I am at home (already doing it)
• Stop breathing (hang on a minute - don't include that!)

I could reduce it to 3.3 t

If I don't make these changes, can I offset 13.5 tonnes of Carbon?

The most popular ways of offsetting are:

• Replacing fossil energy sources with renewable energy or by promoting energy-efficient technologies.
• Contributing to social, ecological and economic development projects.
• Purchasing Carbon Credits

All of these are discussed in this interesting article at ethicalconsumer.org or here at responsibletravel.com.

So would it help if I stopped flying? Errr. Not really. No.

1) HF Holidays would send a different walks leader
2) The plane would fly anyway
3) We'd still be heading for a Climate Catastrophe

Stopping the Climate Catastrophe won't be done by carbon offsetting or a few people flying less.

We need to:

• Shift to renewable energy sources like tidal power
• Provide free public transport as an alternative to driving and flying
• Stop destroying forests for intensive agriculture
• Create protected areas in the oceans in which sea life can flourish
• Encourage people to appreciate their environment and enjoy walking (already doing it)

 Isn't that a bit of a cop out though? You are willing to recycle your waste and you don't drop litter. [Ed.]

I guess I'm willing to do things that are easy to do but not things that would have a big impact on my life like becoming a vegetarian or not flying. If there was a genuinely easy alternative, I would use it.
 

Visitors from Misato

I have recently become Treasurer of Hebden Bridge Walkers Action. Yesterday we were visited by seven representatives of the town council of Misato in Japan. They came to Britain to find out about Walkers are Welcome towns as they are planning to set up something similar in their home town.

At the weekend they attended the Walkers are Welcome conference in Kirby Stephen and stayed in Otley before coming to visit us in Hebden Bridge. They came here because Hebden Bridge was the first Walkers are Welcome town. They were welcomed by the Mayor and Deputy Mayor of our local Town Council, HebdenRoyd. There was a discussion and an exchange of ideas followed by coffee and cake.

Visitors from Misato with the Mayor

Walkers Action then accompanied the visitors on the bus up to Heptonstall. After a quick look around the historic village we walked back down to Hebden Bridge for Lunch in the White Lion.

Hebden Bridge Walkers Action have signed a Memorandum of Friendship with Misato in which we agree to support each other to:

• Encourage towns and villages in our respective countries to be "Welcoming to Walkers".
• Offer local people and visitors excellent walking opportunities.
• Promote the health benefits of walking.
• Increase participation in walking.
• Encourage the use of local transport.
• Ensure that footpaths and facilities for walkers are maintained, improved and well signposted.
• Encourage appreciation of the local countryside, landscape, cultural heritage, and ecology

It was wonderful to meet people from Japan who are as enthusiastic as we are about these objectives.

Derwentwater and Munrobagging III

Since my last post, I have had two weeks at HF Derwentwater leading Guided Walking and a week at HF Glencoe leading Munrobagging III. The weather was pretty wet in the Lake District although there was one memorable day when I took 21 people to the top of Scafell Pike. The cloud was drifting around but we got some good views. Very satisfying.

Descending from Scafell Pike along The Corridor Route

On Munrobagging III there was, thankfully, less wind than we had on MBI and MBII (see previous post). 11 people signed up for MBIII, which is a fair sized group on fairly challenging walks. They were good walkers and we made good progress.

My general approach is not to walk too fast but not to stop too much either. Ideally you should be able to keep up a conversation without getting out of breath, although sometimes this isn't possible if it gets very steep. I like to stop for 15 minutes for elevenses, 20 minutes for lunch and to have a short break on the way down to give weary knees a rest. We might stop occasionally for a drink, or to look at the view, but I try to walk slowly enough to allow everyone to keep up, so that we don't have to keep stopping to let people catch up. I like to keep the same pace going all day and just shorten or lengthen my stride to deal with uphill or downhill slopes or awkward terrain. Again - this isn't always possible.

If people want to walk a bit faster and go ahead, that's fine - so long as they don't get too far ahead. A couple of minutes is a good rule of thumb but they need to bear the following in mind:

1) Do they know the way?
2) Is the rest of the group in sight?
3) By getting ahead, are they putting pressure on the people near the back to rush? This can be very demoralising if you are at the back of the group.
4) What would happen if someone had an accident? Could we easily get the group back together to manage the incident?

We had a particularly memorable day when we walked from Elleric in Glen Creran to Glencoe, via Beinn Fhionnlaidh and Sgor na h-Ulaidh. This was the first time I had done the walk with a group and perhaps it was just a bit too big a walk as we got back an hour late. However, the memorable aspect was the cloud inversion. We spent nearly the whole day in cloud except for when we reached the summits, where we emerged into the sky above the clouds and looked out at all the tops over about 950 metres sticking out of the clouds. Incredible!

Beinn Fhionlaidh and Ben Cruachan from Sgor na h-Ulaidh

Ben Nevis, Aonach Mor, Grey Corries, Bidean & Sgor na h-Ulaidh from Beinn Fhionlaidh

Descent from Sgor na h-Ulaidh (The Hill of the Treasure!)

High Winds!

Back to Glencoe with HF Holidays again. This time I was leading two Munrobagging holidays. Munrobagging I, home for a week and then back for Munrobagging II. Munrobagging involves ascending mountains over 3,000 feet high in Scotland. You can find more details in a previous post.

Last year I had three weeks of amazing hot weather in the area. This was pay back time! During both weeks it rained quite a lot but more importantly it was very windy. This meant that we had to change or abandon several walks.

The Beaufort Scale is very useful for understanding a forecasted wind speed. The initial scale related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a frigate, then the main ship of the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give steerage" to "that which no canvas sails could withstand". In 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Here is a summary:

Wind Speed (mph)	Effect on land
< 1	Smoke Rises Vertically
1 to 3	Direction shown by smoke drift but not by wind vanes.
4 to 7	Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; wind vane moved by wind.
8 to 12	Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; light flags extended.
13 to 18	Raises dust and loose paper; small branches moved.
19 to 24	Small trees in leaf begin to sway; crested wavelets form on inland waters.
25 to 31	Large branches in motion; whistling heard in telegraph wires; umbrellas used with difficulty.
32 to 38	Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt when walking against the wind.
39 to 46	Twigs break off trees; generally impedes progress.
47 to 54	Slight structural damage (chimney pots and slates removed).
55 to 63	Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted; considerable structural damage.
64 to 72	Very rarely experienced; accompanied by widespread damage.
> 72	Devastation

For me, the maximum you can walk in is gusts of 40 mph. Once it gets above 40 mph you can't really make progress any more. You have to keep stopping and putting a hand on the ground or lean on a walking pole.

You definitely would not want to be on an exposed ridge or anywhere near a big drop if the wind is much above 30 mph. Especially if it is gusting. When you get gusts of wind it can suddenly unbalance you.

The problem we had though, is that you are reliant on a weather forecast. Wind speed can vary greatly from one mountain to the next. It is possible to get a specific mountain forecast. You can use the excellent MWUK Phone App or just enter the name of a summit on the Met Office Website. However, it is only a forecast and in the Scottish Highlands forecasting is difficult. I am therefore loath to tell people day after day that they won't be bagging any Munros but I don't want to end up in a dangerous situation.


If I didn't like the forecasted wind speed, I adopted the following policy: If we could go and see if it was possible and have a way back then we'd give it a try. Otherwise we'd just go somewhere else. However, the 'go and give it a try' option had to result in a descent walk if we had to turn back.


When it was dry, I did get some good photographs though:

The 'Lost Valley' and Glencoe from the ridge above

Andesite on Bidean nam Bian. It was once lava but it has shattered due to sudden cooling

Grey Corries from the slopes of Sgurr a' Bhuic

Tame Bucks

I also had the opportunity to visit the excellent West Highland Museum in Fort William where they have this incredible portrait of Bonny Prince Charlie.

Anamorphic picture of Bonny Prince Charlie

"After the the Battle of Culloden in 1746, it was treasonable to support the Stuart claim to the throne. When the ladies and servants had left the room after dinner, the loyal friends of Prince Charles would place the tray on the table and raise their glasses in a toast to his likeness reflected in the cylinder (or in a goblet of claret). If there was a danger of interruption and discovery, the device could quickly be dismantled and the tray would appear as a meaningless blur, or be replaced by a similar decoy tray.

The artist is unknown and there is no record of the portrait’s owners. It was discovered by chance in a London shop by the founders of the Museum and is one of [their] best known exhibits." From the WHM website.

The painting is an example of a technique called mirror anamorphosis. The most famous anamorphic painting is the skull in Holbein's "The Ambassadors".

The museum is free and is packed with all sorts of interesting things. The other place I would recommend in Fort William is the relatively new Highland Bookshop.

A Change to the Rules for Hiking Guides in the South Tyrol

Sadly, I won't be able to go back to the South Tyrol as an HF Holidays Leader and the trip to Selva in the Dolomites in a month's time has had to be cancelled. The Administration of the Province of Bolzano have changed the rules about who can be a Hiking Guide in the South Tyrol. They define as a  'Hiking Guide' someone who accompanies hikers without crampons, ropes or ice axes on paths without fixed-ropes or other equipment and away from glaciers. This is what I do.

It goes on to say that the professional qualifications of these guides must be obtained through attendance at own's own courses and after passing the appropriate exam at the Association of South Tyrolean Mountain and Ski Guides.

There is a UK qualification that I could obtain called 'International Mountain Leader' that would be acceptable. This qualifies you to lead in the Alps in both Summer and Winter conditions but I am only interested in the former . From now on, in the South Tyrol at least, HF Holidays will need to employ someone with the necessary qualifications.

To become an IML you must first qualify as a UK Mountain Leader and have a certain amount of experience internationally in summer conditions. OK so far, but you also need more international experience than I have in winter conditions. So I'd have to get out and do that.

After that, you take the IML summer training course in the UK, which includes a timed navigation test in the mountains. This is followed by a summer assessment course and a winter training course, both in the Alps. Finally, and after more experience has been built up, you have to pass a winter assessment course in the Alps.

A lot of this might be enjoyable but it would cost a lot of money and it seems a bit rich to insist on winter experience as a pre-requisite for leading in the summer.

If the result of this is that both local and European guides get more paid work then I shouldn't complain of course. I hope it works out that way.

Of course none of this prevents me from going to the area with Dorothy and other friends and this is something I will definitely be doing in the future.

Schenna

The hotel used by HF Holidays in Schenna is totally amazing. It is called Schenna Resort because it is several hotels combined into one. You can watch this short film to get an idea of the facilities. They focus on 'Wellness' and offer lots of free activities during the day. Take a look at this weekly program.

Schenna Resort - Weekly Program

The theory is that Wellness Holidays improve physical well-being, happiness, and productivity, giving you a fresh perspective, improving creativity, resilience, problem solving, and capacity for coping with stress. I concur and I think that this also applies Walking and Cycling Holidays in general.

The hotel does offer short walks but mainly concentrates on spa type treatments. The concept is not new. Merano, further down the valley from Schenna, has been a spa town for a long time. Their favourite visitor was Empress Elisabeth of Austria. She arrived in the autumn of 1870 with an entourage of 102 for an extended stay to try to improve the health of her two year old daughter. Sissi, as she is affectionately known locally, was a keen walker and she returned to the town on three further occasions. On one of our walks we saw a sign by a tap sticking out of the wall in the forest explaining that she had drunk from it!

It is a fantastic area for walking. You can use cable cars to gain access to paths that wind their way, high up across the hillside. Sometimes crossing cliffs that seem impenetrable. Look at these pictures taken on two sections of the Meranoer Hohenweg.

Looking down at the next section of the path and the suspension bridge

The well engineered suspension bridge

Climbing back up again to regain lost height

Goats on the track. They weren't moving from that shady spot!

Some of the walks had to be adjusted because there had been a lot of late snow. Apparently the last few weeks had been 10 degrees colder than average and the coldest for 29 years.

We walked through here

We didn't walk across that!

On another walk we went up the very modern Merano 2000 cable car and got off at the mid-station. It reminded me of the sort of thing you might see in the original 1960s Thunderbirds Are Go TV Series.

 

 You can visit the Trauttsmansdorff Botanical Gardens, head down to Merano, visit Ötzi in Bolzano (see previous post) or just admire the incredible views.

A flower meadow at Trauttsmansdorff Gardens

A view of the Dolomites

The South Tyrol

I am going to be leading walks for HF Holidays at two resorts in the South Tyrol over the next couple of months so I thought I'd do a bit of research into the area. It is the most northerly province in Italy and was once part of the Hapsburg and then Austro-Hungarian Empires. Consequently about 60% of the population speak German as their first language, 20% speak Italian and 4% Ladin. Also, according to a poll conducted in 2013, 46% of the population still favour secession from Italy. It is an unusual and interesting place in many ways.

A photograph I took when I last visited the Dolomites in the South Tyrol

History

At the start of the First World War, the Italian Government remained neutral because they were members of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This was created in 1882 and was purely defensive; based on each country supporting the others if any of them were attacked. The most likely attacker at the time was France and, going for a belt and braces strategy, Italy had signed a similar defensive guarantee with France in 1902.

There remained mutual suspicion between Italy and Austria-Hungary and this was exploited by Britain, France and Russia when they signed a pact with Italy called the London Treaty. These countries promised Italy large areas of Austria-Hungary if Italy left the Triple Alliance and declared war against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

The territories promised in the London Treaty were; The Tyrol (North, South and East), Trentino to the South of it, and areas along the East coast of the Adriatic Sea. The pact was supposed to have been kept secret but the Bolsheviks spoiled the party by publishing it in 1917 following the Russian Revolution.

When Italy entered the war, Austria’s troops were heavily committed in Russia so the Austrians withdrew to create a defensive line that ran through the Tyrol and the Dolomites. A ferocious battle took place in the mountains up until the end of 1917 for the control of the peaks. Ropes, ladders and tunnels were used to allow troops to move around quickly. These became known as Via Ferrata when they were later replaced by iron structures and it started a new trend in rock climbing.

After the war, British and French leaders reneged on the deal even though the Italian army had occupied all of the Tyrol including Innsbruck. Only the South Tyrol and Trentino were given to Italy, along with some areas alongside the Adriatic.
The vast majority of people in the South Tyrol spoke German as their first language and they wanted to be re-united with Austria. Their currency was changed and attempts were made to persuade them that they would be better off as Italians.

To a limited extent they were allowed to continue with their customs and culture until the Fascists seized power in 1922. The Fascist regime instituted an assimilation policy, insisting on the exclusive use of Italian in public offices and the closure of most German schools. They also introduced incentives to encourage people to move there from other areas of Italy.

In 1939 Hitler and Mussolini decided to offer the inhabitants a choice between moving to Germany-Austria and becoming German citizens, or staying in Italy and accepting that they were Italian. The population was divided, with the majority leaving, most of whom were - in fact - resettled in Germany-Poland.

After the war the people who had gone to Poland were either murdered or sent back to the South Tyrol. It was hoped that the South Tyrol would be re-united with the rest of the Tyrol but this was not to be. Even though the German, Italian and Ladin languages were all recognized and taught in schools, many South Tyroleans were still very unhappy about still being in Italy.

An organisation called the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee blew up and set fire to some public buildings, Italian fascist monuments and electricity pylons. After their leaders were arrested they became involved with Austrian and German neo-Nazis and in 1967 they ambushed Italian Security Forces killing four of them.

After poor handling of the situation by both the Italian and Austrian governments for many years, an agreement was eventually signed between the two nations in 1969 stating that all disputes in South Tyrol would be settled at the International Court of Justice in The Hague and that the province would be given greater autonomy within Italy. This agreement allowed the area to keep a very high percentage of taxes and the province of South Tyrol is now the wealthiest in Italy and attracts large numbers of Tourists who mainly come to enjoy the mountains.

The most famous South Tyrolean is more than 5,000 years old and lived during the Stone Age. Nicknamed Ötzi the Iceman, he was discovered in 1991 in a glacier with many of his clothes and much of his hunting equipment still intact. The mummy can be seen in the archaeological museum in Bolzano, the capital of South Tyrol.

Economy

The economy consists of artisans, services, industry and agriculture. There is lower unemployment than anywhere else in Italy and a higher GDP per capita. It is mainly small and medium sized businesses, many of which are family run that generate this income.

There is a system of proportional representation between German, Italian and Ladin speaking populations when it comes to allocating public office jobs. The Brenner Pass carries a huge amount of traffic between Italy and Austria and is famous for its traffic jams and the consequent pollution. The EU, Austria and Italy are currently funding the construction of The Brenner Base Tunnel to transfer freight traffic from the road to the railway. It is currently expected to be finished in 2028. When the tunnel is connected to the Innsbruck bypass tunnel, it will be 64 kilometres long, making it the longest underground railway tunnel in the world!

Most tourists are German (almost half) and Italian (over a third) but the South Tyrol also attracts people from Switzerland, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Britain. About 60 percent visit in the summer and winter brings more than a third of the revenue. There are over 1,000 km of ski runs, 400 lifts and 13,000 km of hiking trails.

Many visitors are fascinated by the world of South Tyrol’s farmers. Every year, about 1,700 people, mostly German, come to the South Tyrol on voluntary work assignments in order to experience what life is like today on a mountain farm; where dairy farming, fruit growing (especially apples), and cultivating grapes for wine predominate.

Geology

The Alps were formed about 30 million years ago when the African and Euroasian Tectonic plates were pushed together and the African plate was pushed over the European plate. During the Ice Ages the area was repeatedly covered and then uncovered by snow and ice. The erosion this caused along with erosion by rivers created the landscape we see today.

The most interesting area of the South Tyrol from a geological perspective is the area to the East known as the Dolomites. They are named after the scientist Déodat de Dolomieu who discovered the mineral called Dolomite, which is Calcium Magnesium Carbonate - CaMg(CO3)2. The Dolomite Mountains are made of limestone but they contain a high percentage of this mineral.

The rock making up the Dolomites began to be formed about 250 million years ago, between the Permian and the Triassic geological periods. This corresponded with the most severe extinction of life in the history of the planet. About 96% of all marine species became extinct, as well as 70% of terrestrial vertebrates!

Consequently the mountains are key to understanding the way that life recovered from this event. In fact three of the subdivisions of the Triassic period are named after areas within the Dolomites: Ladinian, Fassanian and Cordevolian.

In the early Triassic, a large number of organisms developed that needed light to live. They began to build reefs in order to keep pace with the progressive lowering of the sea bed. They created an archipelago of islands with atolls and lagoons by extracting mineral salts from the sea and using them to build their skeletons.

Later this was transformed into the Dolomite mineral through the addition of magnesium, found in seawater. Scientists are still not sure how this happens and it is known as ‘The Dolomite Problem’. The region was affected by volcanic eruptions that often buried the reefs and fossilized them. There was then another period of reef building before land erosion covered the area in layers of fine mud. Some dinosaur footprints have been found in this mud.

The area was once again covered by sea. Red limestone - full of ammonites, belemnites and nodules of iron and manganese were deposited. Another great extinction followed as the dinosaurs and the ammonites were wiped out. The African Continent began to drift north into the European Continent. The Alps Mountain Range was created and The Dolomites were pushed up and exposed by erosion.

The Dolomites are famous for the way that they change colour at dawn and dusk to look pink, orange and sometimes even violet. This effect is known as Enrosadira and it is as a result of the Dolomite minerals in the rocks. Enrosadira is a Ladin word that means “turning pink” and the effect can vary enormously depending on atmospheric conditions. There are also particular rock faces that are coloured all day. Small amounts of iron give the dolomite crystals a yellow to brown tint and a high manganese content turn them a rosy pink colour.

Photo of Enrosadira from dolomiti.org